Glossary of Key Terms
Comprehensive glossary of instructional design and cognitive science terms used throughout this book.
A
Active Learning Instructional approach requiring learners to engage in meaningful activities and think about what they are doing, rather than passively receiving information.
ADDIE Model Systematic instructional design model with five phases: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation.
Advance Organizer Introductory material presented before learning content that helps learners organize and interpret new information.
Alignment Consistency between learning objectives, instructional activities, and assessment measures.
Assessment Process of measuring learner achievement against defined criteria; distinct from practice in that it verifies mastery without scaffolding.
Attention Cognitive focus on specific stimuli; the first requirement for learning to occur.
B
Backward Design Instructional design approach that starts with desired outcomes, then determines assessment evidence, and finally plans learning activities.
Bloom's Taxonomy Classification system for cognitive objectives, progressing from lower-order (remember, understand) to higher-order thinking (analyze, evaluate, create).
C
Chunking Organizing information into manageable units to accommodate working memory limitations.
Cognitive Load Mental effort required for information processing; includes intrinsic (content complexity), extraneous (poor design), and germane (productive learning) load.
Cognitive Load Theory Theory that instruction should be designed to manage the demands on working memory during learning.
Cognitive Offloading Using external resources (including AI) to perform cognitive tasks that should be done internally for learning to occur.
Corrective Feedback Feedback that not only identifies errors but guides the learner toward correct understanding or performance.
D
Deliberate Practice Focused, effortful practice with immediate feedback, designed to improve specific aspects of performance.
Desirable Difficulties Learning conditions that slow initial performance but enhance long-term retention and transfer (e.g., spacing, interleaving, retrieval practice).
Differentiation Adapting instruction to meet diverse learner needs while maintaining common objectives.
Dual Coding Encoding information in both verbal and visual forms to strengthen memory.
E
Elaboration Processing strategy that connects new information to existing knowledge through explanation, examples, or analysis.
Encoding Process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in long-term memory.
Evaluation Systematic assessment of instructional effectiveness; may focus on learner reactions, learning outcomes, behavior change, or organizational results.
Expectancy Learner's anticipation of what will be learned and how success will be measured; activated by clear objectives.
Expertise Reversal Effect Phenomenon where instructional techniques effective for novices become less effective or counterproductive for experts.
F
Fading Gradual removal of scaffolding as learner competence increases.
Far Transfer Application of learning to contexts significantly different from the learning situation.
Feedback Information provided to learners about their performance, used to confirm correct responses or guide improvement.
Formative Assessment Ongoing assessment during instruction used to monitor learning and adjust teaching.
G
Gagné, Robert M. Educational psychologist (1916-2002) who developed the Nine Events of Instruction and contributed significantly to systematic instructional design.
Generalization Cognitive process of applying learned knowledge or skills to new situations; the goal of Event 9.
Germane Load Cognitive resources devoted to schema construction and automation; the "good" cognitive load that produces learning.
Graphic Organizer Visual tool that displays relationships among concepts (e.g., concept maps, flowcharts, matrices).
Guardrails Constraints placed on AI tool usage to prevent cognitive offloading and ensure learners do their own thinking.
I
Information Processing Model Theoretical framework describing how information moves through sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
Instructional Design Systematic process of analyzing learning needs and developing instructional materials and activities to meet those needs.
Interleaving Practice strategy that mixes different problem types or topics rather than practicing one type repeatedly.
Intrinsic Load Cognitive load inherent to the complexity of the content being learned.
J
Job Aid Reference tool designed to support performance on the job; provides guidance without requiring memorization.
K
Kirkpatrick Model Four-level framework for evaluating training: reaction, learning, behavior, and results.
Knowledge Information stored in long-term memory; one type of learning outcome in Gagné's taxonomy.
L
Learning Objective Statement of what learners will be able to do after instruction, typically including performance, conditions, and criteria.
Long-Term Memory Permanent storage system for information; has unlimited capacity but requires encoding for storage and retrieval cues for access.
M
Mastery Learning Instructional approach where learners must demonstrate proficiency before advancing; all learners can achieve mastery given appropriate time and instruction.
Metacognition Awareness and regulation of one's own thinking processes; "thinking about thinking."
Mnemonic Memory aid that uses patterns, associations, or structures to facilitate recall.
Modality Principle Multimedia design principle stating that graphics with narration are more effective than graphics with text.
Multimedia Learning Learning from words (text or narration) and pictures (illustrations, photos, animations, video).
N
Near Transfer Application of learning to contexts similar to the learning situation.
Nine Events of Instruction Gagné's framework of nine instructional activities that support the internal processes of learning.
O
Objective See Learning Objective.
Orienting Response Automatic attention shift toward novel or significant stimuli.
P
Practice Activities that allow learners to perform skills and receive feedback; essential for developing competence.
Prior Knowledge What learners already know before instruction; must be activated and connected to new learning.
Processing Activity Brief activity during instruction that allows learners to work with new information (e.g., summarize, apply, discuss).
R
Reception Cognitive process of receiving stimuli through sensory channels; supported by Event 1.
Reinforcement Process of strengthening learning through confirmation of correct responses; supported by Event 7.
Retrieval Process of accessing information from long-term memory.
Retrieval Practice Learning strategy that involves recalling information from memory; strengthens retention through the testing effect.
S
Scaffolding Temporary support provided to learners that is gradually removed as competence develops.
Schema Organized knowledge structure in long-term memory that helps interpret and store new information.
Selective Perception Cognitive process of focusing attention on relevant stimuli while filtering out irrelevant information.
Self-Regulation Learner's ability to monitor, control, and adjust their own learning processes.
Semantic Encoding Processing information for meaning to create durable memory traces.
Spaced Practice Distributing practice over time rather than massing it in a single session; enhances long-term retention.
Summative Assessment Assessment at the end of instruction to evaluate overall learning achievement.
T
Testing Effect Phenomenon where retrieving information from memory strengthens retention more than restudying.
Transfer Application of learning to new contexts; the ultimate goal of instruction.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing Principle that learning is enhanced when practice conditions match the conditions of later application.
W
Working Memory Limited-capacity cognitive system where active processing occurs; holds approximately 4±1 items.
Worked Example Demonstration of how to solve a problem or perform a task, showing each step of the process.
Z
Zone of Proximal Development Range between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with assistance; optimal learning occurs within this zone.